The formation process remains one of the most energy-intensive steps in lead-acid battery manufacturing. In response to growing energy efficiency and process stability demands, PENOX has developed an advanced functionalised red lead (RL+) class, offering performance enhancements and ecological benefits.
This extended study investigates the structural and energetic implications of using standard and advanced RL types in positive active mass (PAM). By systematically analysing the impact of RL+ content, particle morphology, and tetrabasic crystal seeding, the study explores the structural boundaries of PAM. We identified optimal porosity parameters to enhance mass utilisation in automotive battery applications. One key finding concerns the practical porosity limit of the formed PAM, which is currently around 55%. PENOX is now exploring concepts to surpass this threshold.
The study examines formation energy and efficiencies at different operation conditions, e.g., with varying formation profiles. Results show that advanced RL, such as RL+, can reduce energy demand by up to 50%, along with significant reductions in total CO₂ emissions. Furthermore, formation time can be significantly shortened, enabling high-throughput processes without compromising quality. The study also considers how the balance between positive and negative electrode properties influences these efficiency gains. Material innovations in functional oxides pave the way for achieving 4BS structures without intensive steam-curing, as the carrier material reduces activation barriers and boosts the effectiveness of 4BS seeds. These insights are critical for OEMs and battery manufacturers aiming to improve energy footprints and performance margins.
Structural investigation, now incorporating laser microscopic imaging, has become a focus at PENOX — linking physical structures with corresponding electrical performance. This research is further guided by data analysis from field-returned batteries and collaborative datasets, including heat maps of performance indicators. The goal is to define “survival” criteria of plates — and thus entire batteries — under laboratory testing and actual operation.